There was a time, before 1025 AD, when music was notated by a system of markers which simply indicated whether the notes went up or down. While this was effective for chants, it limited other kinds of musical expression and communication. Have you ever seen music for a pipe organ or the score for a symphony orchestra? The actor-director Bradley Cooper was criticized by some for taking six years (!) to study conducting prior to making his film about Leonard Bernstein back in 2023. It’s hard to imagine the complexity of such notation and what it takes to compel a hundred musicians to follow the precise movement of the conductor’s hands, face, body, and voice to the desired effect. There is so much more—but what, you may ask, does Bradley Cooper as “Maestro” have to do with punctuation? A lot, as it turns out. You see, music notation is composed of symbols, each note, word, dot, dash, arrow, rest, etc. signifying an instruction to the players. Otherwise, how would the conductor know what sound each instrument is to produce, how loud, when they come in, and even, out of so many, when one of many may come in a bit early, be slightly off pitch . . . you get the picture.
One might also compare them to traffic signs; they signal the driver when to turn, slow down, yield, beware of hazardous conditions, and more. Without them, there would be chaos.
Each mark of punctuation has a function; in most cases, it is not arbitrary. Once you are aware of these functions, it will be easier to use punctuation marks correctly. This, of course, aids the writer to express complexity of thought and the reader to comprehend the nuances of meaning.
Here, I present the major marks of punctuation. There are more, but this should be a helpful review.
There are two kinds of punctuation: end punctuation and internal punctuation.
End punctuation is easy. There are only three marks:
1. . period ends a declarative sentence (“dot” in math and computers)
• TRAP: In Standard American English, the period goes inside quotation marks. (The British place it outside; actually, it’s easier to type, but please use the American standard unless you are writing for a British publisher.)
2. ? question mark ends a question
• TRAP: Do not use a question mark at the end of an implied question.
Ex: I wonder if John will be joining us tonight. (implied question; ends with a period)
Will John be joining us tonight? [an actual question; ends with a question mark]
Does the question mark go inside or outside quotation marks?
The question mark goes inside if the quote is a question but the sentence is a statement.
Ex: John asked, “Are you hungry?”
The question mark goes outside if the quote is a statement but the sentence is a question.
Ex: Did John say “I’m hungry”?
3. ! exclamation point used after an exclamation
• TRAP: it’s tempting to use two or more exclamation points, but please use them sparingly, and only use one at a time. The only exception: if you’re writing a personal note to someone you know well. (“I just saw the cutest puppy!!!”)
Internal punctuation—that’s where it gets confusing.
1. , comma used to separate certain clauses; to set off parenthetical expressions; between the elements of a list
• TRAP: People often use too many commas or too few, or simply use them incorrectly.
• TRAP: In Standard American English, the commas go inside quotation marks.
• TRAP: It is not necessary to place a comma after and, but, so, etc. at the beginning of a sentence.
• TRAP: Do not use a comma between two complete sentences. Use a semicolon or conjunction, or make them into two complete sentences (short sentences are okay). If you use a comma, it creates a run-on sentence.
2. ; semicolon indicates a degree of separation greater than that of a comma; connects two or more related sentences if not using a conjunction, such as and; connects items in a list when one or more items contain a comma; used for clarity
3. : colon used after the salutation in a business letter (Dear Mr. Smith:); to introduce a long list (My favorite colors are: red, blue, green, purple, magenta, ecru, peach, and olive green; to introduce a block of text, which is often indented.
4. ’ apostrophe used to show possession (the cat’s paw); contraction or omission (don’t instead of do not; ’70s instead of 1970s); plurals of symbols (7’s, B’s)
• TRAP: Don’t confuse possessive for plural. To make a name plural, add s or es (the Harrisons; There are two Susans in my class; The Lopezes live next door). For plural, do not use an apostrophe.
• TRAP: For singular possessive, add ’s (the cat’s paw). For plural possessive, just add an apostrophe (the cats’ paws).
5. “ ” quotation marks for direct quotation; always used in pairs
• TRAP: Always use single quotation marks (‘…’) for a quotation within a quotation.
Ex: My brother said, “Sorry I’m late, June, but when Susie said, ‘Daddy, please fix my lunch today,’ I couldn’t refuse.”
• TRAP: Be sure each single or double quotation mark is facing in the correct direction: “the” ‘the’.
6. - hyphen The hyphen is a connector. It connects the parts of a compound word (brother-in-law); the syllables of a divided word, as at the end of a line; or two or more words into a one-word adjective directly preceding a noun.
Ex: The sale runs for two days. (no hyphen); The two-day sale ends tomorrow. (hyphenated)
• TRAP: Do not use a space before and/or after the hyphen.
7 — dash The dash is a separator. It is used to indicate a break, omission, or change in tone or direction.
There are two kinds of dashes, the em dash (—, about the width of a capital letter M) and the en dash (–, about the width of a capital letter N). The em dash is used to set off a clause for emphasis, similar to a pair of commas or parentheses, or to indicate a sudden break in tone or direction: “I want you to know— Help, the building’s on fire!” The en dash is used to show a range (pages 10–20; 1846–1920) or connect related items. It does not have a space on either side of it.
• TRAP: The hyphen and dash are not interchangeable. In fact, in function, they are opposites.
Some signs and symbols commonly used in English:
@ at used in sums (5 lbs. of peaches @ 99¢ per lb.); used in email addresses; otherwise, should not be used in place of the word “at”
# pound sign number
$ dollar sign
• TRAP: Do not use the dollar sign and the word dollar(s) for the same number. (NO: It costs $45 dollars) (YES: It costs $45. Or, It costs forty-five dollars.) Write out the amount for most books.
% percent fraction of a dollar or of 100
•TRAP: For “in care of,” use c/o; don’t use the % sign.
& ampersand sign for “and”; used only for company names (Selfman & Others PR).
• TRAP: Do not use it for the word “and.”
* asterisk indicates reference to a footnote; plural is asterisks.
• TRAP: Do not pronounce it as “asterikses”; it is “aster risks.”
( ) parentheses used to enclose qualifying or explanatory remarks (always used in pairs); singular is parenthesis, when referring to the one; however, they must be used in pairs
[ ] brackets used to enclose; indicates editor’s insertion (also always used in pairs)
• TRAP: For parenthetical material within parentheses, use brackets (similar to using singular quotes within double quotes).
Ex: Annie decided to take a gap year to travel the world (although her parents [especially her father] were against it).
If you have comments or questions, feel free to contact me at floself@aol.com.
As we ease into the end of a most unusual year, I’d like to wish you a beautiful holiday season with family and friends and much joy to come in 2026!
Flo Selfman is a copy editor for award-winning books, both fiction and nonfiction, in several genres. She was president of the Independent Writers of Southern California (IWOSC.org) for a dozen years, stepping down in 2016. Winner of the Honorary Achievement Award from The BookFest (Spring 2023). Flo is working on a collection of stories and can often be found exploring SoCalif, camera in hand.
